Located in North America, Canada is the second largest country in the world. The history of the Canadian Jewish community – the fourth largest in the world – mirrors the country's uniqueness. The persistent Franco-British duality has lessened the pressure for a single, exclusive nationalism, reducing accusations of "dual loyalty".
Although located in the Americas, Canada did not replicate, at least in theory, the same secularism, democratic spirit, nationalism, or liberalism attributed to the United States. Even so, it offered Jews who settled on its soil the promise of freedom and material advancement for themselves and their children.
The antisemitism that plagues Canada today is not a new phenomenon. In Quebec, there are records of this since the end of the 19th century, with peaks in the interwar period and the Second World War.a War, and resurgences during periods of political tension. But, in recent decades, antisemitism has been reigniting. Indicators have risen even further in recent years: annual reports and official statistics record highs and point to Jews as the most targeted religious group in 2024. Large demonstrations against Israel – especially in Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver – and acts of vandalism have amplified the feeling of insecurity in the Jewish community. In the international arena, Canada, historically seen as pro-Israel, has changed its stance, adopting quite critical positions regarding the Jewish State in multilateral forums and in recent government statements.
French rule and British transition
The first French landmark in Canada dates back to 1534, when Jacques Cartier claimed the St. Lawrence Valley on behalf of the French Crown. Effective dominion, however, began in 1608 with Samuel de Champlain. During the New France period, colonial laws prohibited the settlement of Jews and Protestants. Nevertheless, there were Jews involved in trade with French colonies in the Americas, and it is possible that some Quebec merchants were converts.
The Jewish presence only truly began after the defeat of France. The first Jewish community in Canada, Shearith Israel, was established in Montreal in December 1768. The congregation adopted the name of the main synagogue in New York and, although it sought religious guidance in London, maintained close ties with the communities of New York and Philadelphia. Despite being predominantly Ashkenazi, this kehilah 1 He followed the Sephardic liturgy.
The Jews of Montreal maintained close commercial relations with British merchants who dominated the economy, thus benefiting from political connections with London. Aaron Hart, born in London, stood out in the region, having arrived in Canada with British forces in 1760. He settled in Trois-Rivières, dedicating himself to the fur trade. Over time, he acquired properties, eventually founding a mercantile and political dynasty.
The majority of Jews who settled in Canada were English-speaking merchants and members of the British administrative and commercial elite. Most of them had been born in the Thirteen American Colonies or in England. During the American Revolution of 1776, they maintained loyalty to the British Crown, although they advocated a degree of self-government equivalent to that of the former colonies.
It fell to Ezekiel Hart, Aaron's second son, to pay the price for the internal conflict between the English and the French. He was elected to the Assembly of Lower Canada in 1804.2He was prevented from taking office because he was Jewish and, consequently, could not take the customary Christian oath. Re-elected, he was again expelled and abandoned the race. In Lower Canada, the prohibition on Jews holding office would only be revoked in 1831, putting an end to their status as "second-class citizens".
Montreal, Toronto, and other cities in the 19th century.
With the prosperity of Montreal – a center of import and export trade – the Jews who lived there also prospered. In 1847, the eminent Sephardic rabbi and scholar Abraham de Sola arrived in the city from London. For the next 35 years, he served as the religious leader of the community, gaining great prestige both within and outside of it. Rabbi de Sola maintained ties with the Jewish intellectual and social circles that extended from London to Philadelphia.
In the last decades of the 19th century, English, German, Alsatian, and Polish Jews settled in Montreal. In 1846, an Ashkenazi liturgical congregation was formed, and the following year the Hebrew Benevolent Society was founded to support the newcomers. At the time, the city's Jews were mostly small merchants. Few worked in the major national sectors, in finance, transportation, and manufacturing. Quebec City's first synagogue opened in 1852. Its congregation was composed of German and English Jews.
A small number of ashkenazim Germans, English, Austrians, and Poles – settled in Toronto, Hamilton, and Victoria, where they founded synagogues. In Toronto, they created the Holy Blossom Temple in 1856, with Ashkenazi liturgy; in Hamilton, in 1850, the Anshe Sholom, also Ashkenazi. The Victoria synagogue, Congregation Emanu-El, was opened in 1863, following the Ashkenazi rite with Sephardic influences. Today, the synagogue is the oldest still in use in Canada. In these three cities, most Jews lived by trading in small goods, tobacco, and inexpensive clothing, much of which was sold to shopkeepers in the countryside. The retail and wholesale of clothing paved the way for clothing manufacturing, and tobacco for the production of cigars and cigarettes in small urban factories.
Until the end of the 19th century, Jewish communities in Canada were relatively isolated from one another. In Montreal, the arrival of immigrants from Eastern Europe, fleeing poverty and persecution, spurred organized assistance, led by the Baron de Hirsch Institute (formerly the Young Men's Hebrew Benevolent Society), which coordinated aid to the newcomers. In Toronto and Winnipeg, associations with the same purpose were being created. The pressure for community coordination increased even more with the growth in the flow of Jews. Between 1880 and 1900, approximately 10 Jews arrived in Canada. The country's Jewish population jumped from less than 2.500 to more than 16 – a proportional growth greater than that of the national population.
Immigration from Eastern Europe and work
Most of the newly arrived Jews (Russians, Austro-Hungarians, Romanians) did not speak English nor had commercial experience. A high-ranking Canadian government official proposed, in 1882, the migration of "Jewish farmers to our Northwest." Their settlement in the western plains was then encouraged, giving rise to agricultural colonies, generally short-lived. But, overall, urban settlement prevailed: many became peddlers, receiving small loans from institutions such as the Baron de Hirsch Institute.
Others entered the then-booming garment industry, accepting low wages and difficult working conditions. The Jewish press denounced abuses in this industry and advocated for vocational training in other trades. In the first decades of the 20th century, the garment industry was of vital importance to Jewish economic life. In 1931, 16% of employed Jews in Montreal worked in the sector; in Toronto, more than 27%, percentages that had been even higher in previous decades.
Antisemitism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
The increase in Jewish immigration intensified social tensions, giving rise to a growth in antisemitism. Universities and clubs adopted quotas and informal barriers; they also adopted restrictive clauses in deeds that began to exclude Jews from certain neighborhoods and resortsAnd Christian religious organizations are pressuring Orthodox Jews regarding Sunday observance.
In Quebec, the mainstream French-language press tended toward neutrality, but ultramontane Catholic sectors spread antisemitic rhetoric. The newspaper La TruthFor example, he urged readers to "be on guard against the Jews, to prevent them from settling here...".
In Montreal, the major newspapers avoided animosity, with the exception of... The True Witness and Daily chronicle, which, in the Alfred Dreyfus trials3They positioned themselves against the French captain.
In Toronto, the intellectual Goldwyn Smith became notorious for his virulent antisemitism. He attributed to Jews an "unbridled influence in the press," launched attacks on British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli – whom he called a "despicable adventurer and trickster" for being Jewish – and even linked the Boer War to supposed Jewish interests.
In 1920, psychiatrist C.K. Clarke opposed the entry of Jewish refugee children from Ukraine because they "belonged to a neurotic race."
In academia, restrictions multiplied: in 1919, the director of Queen's University stated that the entry of "too many Jews" would lower the institution's standing, while McGill University reduced Jewish enrollment and, in the interwar period, imposed strict quotas.
In Quebec, medieval myths – including the blood libel – resurfaced, and religious and political authorities fostered distrust of Jews. In Catholic circles, Jews were seen as "dangerous foreigners"; among young nationalists, as "disruptive" elements. Fearing unrest, a rabbi telegraphed the Minister of Justice warning of "large gatherings" against Jews in Quebec City.
In the 1930s, the fascist Adrien Arcand led openly anti-Semitic movements, while the Canadian state had a policy of almost closed doors to Jewish refugees – a period remembered as “None Is Too Many"('None is ever too much')."
Community growth
At the beginning of the 20th century, intense Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe expanded and diversified the community, which began to take on a distinctly Eastern European profile. Between 1901 and 1922, migratory flows reached unprecedented levels.
The 1901 census recorded 16,5 Jews; a decade later, 75; and in 1921, 126 (1,5% of the population). The majority were concentrated in large cities: between 1901 and 1911, Montreal grew by about 400% and Toronto by almost 600%; Ottawa and Hamilton also showed significant growth.
In large cities, poverty, disease, and burial were the central problems of the communities. Mutual aid societies and credit unions flourished, mitigating the difficulties of adaptation for Jewish immigrants. The newcomers transformed Canadian Jewish life: they founded their own synagogues and community networks, and created... shuls 4 improvised, landsmanschaften 5newspapers, unions, and clubs. Even smaller communities had shuls synagogues, on the eve of the 1a War.
Jewish education has always been a priority. Openings were established. Talmud Torah (religious schools), for the teaching of Hebrew, Yiddish, prayers, Torah and, often, Talmud and Mishnah. His push for the democratization of community politics resulted in the creation of the Canadian Jewish Congress (CJC).
The Rise of Zionism
Canadian Zionists were more forceful than their American counterparts, partly due to the absence of a pan-Canadian nationalism.
The Zionist movement grew thanks to the organizational genius of businessman Clarence de Sola, son of Rabbi Abraham de Sola, who led the Federation of Zionist Societies of Canada for two decades (1899–1919). Under his direction, fundraising simultaneously became... purpose and the main measure of community success.
During 1a During the war, Canada was still a dominion of the British Empire. Full legislative autonomy would only come in December 1931, with the Statute of Westminster, thus preserving the same monarch as head of state.
In World War I, the British Empire, part of the Triple Entente, fought against the Central Powers.6Among them were the Ottoman Empire. In the Middle East, the offensive in Palestine was led by British General Edmund Allenby.
Canadian Zionists articulated their cause within British-Canadian nationalism without raising any doubts about their loyalty to the country. They massively supported recruitment for the Jewish Legion – created in 1917 as the 38th, 39th, and 40th Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers – which served in the Palestine campaign under Edmund Allenby. (Its precursor was the Zion Mule Corps of 1915, sometimes remembered as the first Jewish military unit of the modern era). The Canadian government authorized the enlistment of Jews, and by the end of 1917, a British officer had taken over the recruitment campaign for the Legion; hundreds of volunteers – some already incorporated into the Canadian forces – transferred to the Jewish battalions.
The women's Zionist movement also grew. The Canadian Hadassah spread throughout the country, infusing immediate urgency into the movement. By 1920, it was the strongest, most cohesive, and best-led national organization in the Canadian Jewish landscape.
The interwar period and antisemitism.
Strong anti-foreigner sentiment grew in Canada during and after the First World War.a War. The Winnipeg General Strike.7The rise of the Social Democratic Party and, in 1921, the Communist Party of Canada, attributed to "foreigners"—especially Austrians, Jews, and Turks—inflamed nativist and anti-immigrant sentiments.
In 1919, the Canadian government restricted immigration from "enemy aliens"—nationals of countries with which Canada had been at war. Many Jews of these origins were affected by these measures, not because they were Jewish, but because of their nationality. Even after the subsequent exemption of Jews from this category, the Canadian Jewish Congress remained vigilant regarding other requirements (documentation, minimum amount of resources) and the broad discretionary power of immigration agents, which continued to hinder Jewish immigration.
In 1921, however, lacking leadership and funding, the CJC lost momentum; throughout the 1920s, Jews were left without a spokesperson for collective issues, such as immigration policy.
In the interwar period, antisemitism became virulent. In French-speaking Quebec, Jews were accused of "Bolshevism," of "fomenting the Russian Revolution," and of being members of "international communism." Antisemitic articles multiplied in the French-language press – especially in L'Action Catholique –, while magazines such The Bobolink e The Mirror They displayed caricatures of Jews.
Nationalist intellectuals attacked the supposed Jewish “materialism,” “communism,” and “capitalism.” The economic boycott campaign Buy at OursThe movement, articulated primarily in Montreal and Quebec City by Catholic-nationalist circles, was aimed mainly at Jewish merchants and urged French Canadians to "shop among us" and not frequent "Jewish shops".
Violence against Jews occasionally erupted – such as in the Toronto riot (August 1933). The “blue shirts,” in the Nazi style, marched in several cities. In certain localities, such as a small community in Quebec, there were attempts to block synagogues and even an arson attack on the eve of its inauguration (1944).
In Anglophone Canada, prejudice might have sounded more “modern,” but it was no less harmful. It remained anchored in old slanders and stereotypes – from accusations of being “Jesus’s killers” to the figure of Shakespeare’s Shylock – or disguised by the “pseudo-scientific” nature of Nazi “scientific racism” and eugenics. Antisemitism greatly restricted professional, educational, residential, and economic and social advancement opportunities.
The Anglo-Protestant community offered little protection to the Jews of Quebec, fueling the feeling that “The province of Québec is not a province with the autres"The province of Quebec is not a province like the others."
Reactivated in 1934, the CJC combated antisemitism by disseminating materials that exposed it. Os Protocols of the Elders of Zion and warned against Nazism. He confronted fascists and fought hate propaganda, always pushing for anti-discrimination legislation.
But the most tangible and cruel impact of antisemitism was the control of Jewish immigration. The restrictions imposed heavy burdens on Jews. Regulations from 1921 required valid passports from the country of origin – something complicated for Poles and Russians who had escaped the former Tsarist empire. It was impossible to obtain them without returning, a risk few would take. In 1923, the law classified immigrants as “preferred,” “non-preferred,” and “special permission.” All Jews fell into the latter category, subjected to the most severe restrictions.
Jewish immigration – except for “special permits” for first-degree relatives – was, in practice, halted. Canada closed its doors to Jews.
Restrictionism drastically reduced Jewish immigration: in 1931, the flow was less than a fifth of the 1930 level. In the following years, despite desperate appeals, the government kept the doors practically closed – an attitude later summarized by the formula made famous by two Canadian historians, Irving Abella and Harold Troper.8, assigned to an employee: “None is too many"('None is ever too much')."
Historian Arthur RM Lower, then at Wesley College (Winnipeg), spoke out against the old "immigration generosity," which, in his view, attracted "unsuitable" individuals and jeopardized the "Anglo-Saxon character" of the country – "bad" immigrants would drive "good" Canadians out of their own land!
Yielding to internal pressure, Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King did not revoke the restrictive immigration policy. After the KristallnachtDuring the coup d'état that took place on November 9 and 10, 1938, in Nazi Germany, King told the cabinet that it was time for actions consistent with "national conscience," not political calculation. But admitting Jews to Canada brought few votes and high costs, and the country's doors remained locked.
Canada in World War II
On the eve of the 2nda During the war, the Jewish population in Canada reached approximately 170 people. Proportionally, Jews were more urbanized, more numerous in the small local middle class, and had higher levels of education than the national average.
From the outbreak of the war, the Canadian Jewish Congress wanted Canadians to know that Jews were doing their part. In 1940, the Congress created the National War Efforts Committee, opened recruitment centers across the country, and established a network of social and religious support for Jewish service members stationed at bases throughout the country.
More than 16,000 Jews served in the Canadian Armed Forces during World War II. When the Canadian Army entered Belgium and the Netherlands, Jewish servicemen played an important role in assisting survivors, distributing food, sending supplies to children in Bergen-Belsen, and helping communities in cities like Amersfoort and Amsterdam. Chaplain-Rabbi Samuel Cass organized celebrations of Chanukah in vandalized synagogues, "reconsecrating" them by lighting the lights for this festival.
Zionist Activity in the 1940s–1950s
In the 1940s and 1950s, Canadian Zionism reached new heights. Traditional fundraising was complemented by political activism and a commitment to a Jewish National Home. Public influence was less than in the US – due to Canada's "almost British" character – but opinion campaigns and... LOBBY They strengthened support for the Jewish state within the community. After the Holocaust, even non-Zionists joined in the defense of a Jewish homeland in the Land of Israel. With Israel's independence in May 1948, Zionism became a consensus among Canadian Jews.
However, despite images of the Holocaust and liberated Nazi camps, antisemitism remained strong in the immediate postwar period. In 1946, a Gallup poll showed that, among "undesirable groups," only the Japanese were cited more often than Jews. Still, international pressure and the need for labor relaxed immigration policy in 1946, allowing significant numbers of Jews to enter. In total, approximately 35 Jewish survivors arrived between 1945 and 1956, a higher proportion than in the U.S.
Towards equality
In the 1960s, Quebec underwent urban renewal and a process of secularization that dismantled much of the old institutional antisemitism. Even so, the rise of separatism (1960s–1970s), the October Crisis (1970), and language legislation led many Jews—especially young people—to migrate to Toronto and other provinces.
In English-speaking Canada, legal victories overturned residential and occupational barriers. Ontario passed the first provincial law against racial discrimination and the Fair Employment Practices Statute. However, quotas and academic barriers persisted: McGill University limited admission to medical school to about 10% Jewish students until the 1960s; at the University of Toronto, higher grades were required and access to internships and hospitals was restricted.
The evolution of Canadian multiculturalism, beginning in the late 1960s – with greater ethnic diversity, official rhetoric, and public policies – reinforced confidence: the community preserved its ethno-religious identity and maximized its participation in national life.
Immigration continued in waves: Sephardic Jews from the Middle East and North Africa in the 1950s and 60s, mainly to Montreal; Soviets/Russians from the 1970s onwards; Israelis (1970s and 80s); and flows from South Africa, Ethiopia, and Latin America. As before, the new immigrants created their own community networks.
In several indicators, Canadian Jews proved to be more "Jewish" than Americans – due to the larger proportion of foreign-born individuals and Canadian multiculturalism.
Early 21th century
Between 1981 and 2001, the Canadian Jewish population grew – contrary to the pattern seen in most of the Diaspora. The 2001 Census counted approximately 371 Jews. The community is concentrated in the largest cities: 180 in Toronto, 93 in Montreal, and 23 in Vancouver. Toronto consolidated itself as a major Jewish metropolis, fueled by the exodus from Montreal in the 1960s and 1970s. At the same time, Quebec's support for denominational schools attracted more religious Jews to Montreal.
Jews have become a highly educated group and are predominantly part of the upper-middle class: in 2001, 45% had a university degree (compared to 18% in total in Canada). In the 1990s and 2000s, estimates indicate that 14–20% of the country's wealthiest families had Jewish origins. Surnames such as Bronfman, Asper, Azrieli, Belzberg, Dan, Koffler, Reichmann, and Schwartz are prominent – and mobilize philanthropic resources for Jewish and general causes.
In the 21st century, the Canadian Jewish community combines high levels of education, a vibrant institutional life, and strong civic engagement with Israel, while simultaneously facing a resurgence of antisemitism and security challenges. According to the 2021 Census, approximately 400,000 Jews live in the country, making Canada the fourth largest Jewish community in the Diaspora.
1 Kehilah – congregation, in Hebrew
2 Lower Canada – A British colony created in 1791 from the division of the Province of Quebec, encompassing the south of present-day Quebec. In 1841, it was united with Upper Canada to form the Province of Canada; in 1867, with Confederation, it split into Ontario and Quebec.
3 The Dreyfus Affair (1894–1906) – divided France after the false accusation of treason against the Jewish captain Alfred Dreyfus; the review of the trial, driven by the “J'accuse…!” by Émile Zola, exposed institutional antisemitism and culminated in his rehabilitation and the annulment of his conviction in 1906.
4 shul – school or house of prayer, in Yiddish.
5 Mutual aid society for Jewish immigrants from the same European city or region.
6 In World War I (1914–1918), the Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire – faced the Triple Entente and its allies (France, the United Kingdom, and Russia until 1918, and the USA in 1917, among others).
7 The largest labor strike in Canadian history, which took place in May.
June 1919.
8 Abella and Troper were the co-authors of None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe, 1933-1948In the book, they demonstrate how Canadian immigration policy during that period was deliberately restrictive towards Jews – hence the phrase “None is too many".
